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The giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca), also known as the panda bear or simply panda, is a bear species endemic to China. It is characterised by its white coat with black patches around the eyes, ears, legs and shoulders. Its body is rotund; adult individuals weigh 100 to 115 kg (220 to 254 lb) and are typically 1.2 to 1.9 m (3 ft 11 in to 6 ft 3 in) long. It is sexually dimorphic, with males being typically 10 to 20% larger than females. A thumb is visible on its forepaw, which helps in holding bamboo in place for feeding. It has large molar teeth and expanded temporal fossa to meet its dietary requirements. It can digest starch and is mostly herbivorous with a diet consisting almost entirely of bamboo and bamboo shoots.

The giant panda lives exclusively in six montane regions in a few Chinese provinces at elevations of up to 3,000 m (9,800 ft). It is solitary and gathers only in mating seasons. It relies on olfactory communication to communicate and uses scent marks as chemical cues and on landmarks like rocks or trees. Females rear cubs for an average of 18 to 24 months. The oldest known giant panda was 38 years old.

As a result of farming, deforestation and infrastructural development, the giant panda has been driven out of the lowland areas where it once lived. The wild population has increased again to 1,864 individuals as of March 2015. Since 2016, it has been listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List. In July 2021, Chinese authorities also classified the giant panda as vulnerable. It is a conservation-reliant species. By 2007, the captive population comprised 239 giant pandas in China and another 27 outside the country. It has often served as China’s national symbol, appeared on Chinese Gold Panda coins since 1982 and as one of the five Fuwa mascots of the 2008 Summer Olympics held in Beijing.

Etymology

The word panda was borrowed into English from French, but no conclusive explanation of the origin of the French word panda has been found.^[3] The closest candidate is the Nepali word ponya, possibly referring to the adapted wrist bone of the red panda, which is native to Nepal. In many older sources, the name “panda” or “common panda” refers to the red panda (Ailurus fulgens),^[4] which was described some 40 years earlier and over that period was the only animal known as a panda.^[5] The binomial name Ailuropoda melanoleuca means black and white (melanoleuca) cat-foot (ailuropoda).^[6]

Since the earliest collection of Chinese writings, the Chinese language has given the bear many different names, including mò (貘, ancient Chinese name for giant panda),^[7] huāxióng (花熊; “spotted bear”) and zhúxióng (竹熊; “bamboo bear”).^[8] The most popular names in China today are dàxióngmāo (大熊貓; lit. ’giant bear cat’), or simply xióngmāo (熊貓; lit. ’bear cat’). As with the word panda in English, xióngmāo (熊貓) was originally used to describe just the red panda, but dàxióngmāo (大熊貓) and xiǎoxióngmāo (小熊猫; lit. ’little bear cat’) were coined to differentiate between the species.^[8]

In Taiwan, another popular name for panda is the inverted dàmāoxióng (大貓熊; lit. ’giant cat bear’), though many encyclopedias and dictionaries in Taiwan still use the “bear cat” form as the correct name. Some linguists argue, in this construction, “bear” instead of “cat” is the base noun, making the name more grammatically and logically correct, which have led to the popular choice despite official writings.^[8] This name did not gain its popularity until 1988, when a private zoo in Tainan painted a sun bear black and white and created the Tainan fake panda incident.^[9][10]

Taxonomy

For many decades, the precise taxonomic classification of the giant panda was under debate because it shares characteristics with both bears and raccoons.^[11] In 1985, molecular studies indicated that the giant panda is a true bear, part of the family Ursidae.^[12][13] These studies show it diverged about 19 million years ago from the common ancestor of the Ursidae;^[14] it is the most basal member of this family and equidistant from all other extant bear species.^[14][15]

Subspecies

Two subspecies of giant panda have been recognized on the basis of distinct cranial measurements, colour patterns, and population genetics.^[16]

• The nominate subspecies, A. m. melanoleuca, consists of most extant populations of the giant panda. These animals are principally found in Sichuan and display the typical stark black and white contrasting colours.^[17]
• The Qinling panda, A. m. qinlingensis,^[18] is restricted to the Qinling Mountains in Shaanxi at elevations of 1,300–3,000 m (4,300–9,800 ft). The typical black and white pattern of Sichuan giant pandas is replaced with a light brown and white pattern.^[16] The skull of A. m. qinlingensis is smaller than its relatives, and it has larger molars.^[19]

A detailed study of the giant panda’s genetic history from 2012 confirms that the separation of the Qinling population occurred about 300,000 years ago, and reveals that the non-Qinling population further diverged into two groups, named the Minshan and the Qionglai–Daxiangling–Xiaoxiangling–Liangshan group respectively, about 2,800 years ago.^[20]

Phylogeny

Of the eight extant species in the bear family Ursidae, the giant panda’s lineage branched off the earliest.^[21][22]

Ursidae	Giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) Spectacled bear (Tremarctos ornatus) Ursinae (black, brown, sloth, sun, and polar bears)

Distribution and habitat

The giant panda is endemic to China. It is found in small, fragmented populations in six mountainous regions in the country, mainly in Sichuan, and also in neighbouring Shaanxi and Gansu.^[23] Successful habitat preservation has seen a rise in panda numbers, though loss of habitat due to human activities remains its biggest threat. In areas with a high concentration of medium-to-large-sized mammals—such as domestic cattle, a species known to degrade the landscape—the giant panda population is generally low. This is mainly attributed to the panda’s avoidance of interspecific competition.^[24][25]

The species has been located at elevations of 2,400 to 3,000 m (7,900 to 9,800 ft) above sea level.^[26] They frequent habitats with a healthy concentration of bamboos, typically old-growth forests, but may also venture into secondary forest habitats.^[27] The Daxiangling Mountain population inhabits both coniferous and broadleaf forests.^[28] Additionally, the Qinling population often selects evergreen broadleaf and conifer forests, while pandas in the Qionglai mountainous region exclusively select upland conifer forests. The remaining two populations, namely those occurring in the Liangshan and Xiaoxiangling mountains, predominantly occur in broadleaf evergreen and conifer forests.^{[12]: 137–148}

Giant pandas once roamed across Southeast Asia from Myanmar to northern Vietnam. Their range in China spanned much of the southeast region. By the Pleistocene, climate change affected panda populations, and the subsequent domination of modern humans led to large-scale habitat loss.^[29][30] In 2001, it was estimated that the range of the giant panda had declined by about 99% of its range in earlier millenniums.^[31]

Description

The skull of a giant panda at the Smithsonian Museum of Natural History

Close-up of giant panda at ZooParc in Beauval, France

The giant panda has a body shape typical of bears. It has black fur on its ears, limbs, shoulders and around the eyes. The rest of the animal’s coat is white.^[32] The bear’s distinctive coloration appears to serve as camouflage in both winter and summer environments as they do not hibernate. The white areas serve as camouflage in snow, while the black shoulders and legs conceal them in shade.^[33] Studies in the wild have found that when viewed from a distance, the panda displays disruptive coloration, while up close, they rely more on blending in.^[34] The black ears may be used to display aggression,^[33] while the eye patches might facilitate them identifying one another.^[33][35] The giant panda’s thick, woolly coat keeps it warm in the cool forests of its habitat.^[32]

The panda’s skull shape is typical of durophagous carnivorans. It has evolved from previous ancestors to exhibit larger molars with increased complexity and expanded temporal fossa.^[36][37] A study revealed that a 117.5 kg (259 lb) giant panda had a bite force of 1298.9 Newton (BFQ 151.4) at canine teeth and 1815.9 Newton (BFQ 141.8) at carnassial teeth.^[38] Adults measure around 1.2 to 1.9 m (3 ft 11 in to 6 ft 3 in) long, including a tail of about 10–15 cm (3.9–5.9 in), and 60 to 90 cm (24 to 35 in) tall at the shoulder.^[39][40] Males can weigh up to 160 kg (350 lb).^[41] Females are generally 10–20% smaller than males.^[42] They weigh between 70 kg (150 lb) and 125 kg (276 lb).^[43][39][44] The average weight for adults is 100 to 115 kg (220 to 254 lb).^[45]

The giant panda’s paw has a digit similar to a thumb and five fingers; the thumb-like digit – actually a modified sesamoid bone – helps it to hold bamboo while eating.^[46][47] The giant panda’s tail, measuring 10 to 15 cm (3.9 to 5.9 in), is the second-longest in the bear family, behind the sloth bear.^[42]

Ecology

Diet

Duration: 34 seconds.0:34Subtitles available.CCPandas eating, standing, and playing

Despite its taxonomic classification as a carnivoran, the giant panda’s diet is primarily herbivorous, with approximately 99% of its diet consisting of bamboo.^[48] However, the giant panda still has the digestive system of a carnivore, as well as carnivore-specific genes,^[49] and thus derives little energy and little protein from the consumption of bamboo. The ability to break down cellulose and lignin is very weak, and their main source of nutrients comes from starch and hemicelluloses. The most important part of their bamboo diet is the shoots, that are rich in starch and have up to 32% protein content. Accordingly, pandas have evolved a higher capability to digest starches than strict carnivores.^[50] Raw bamboo is toxic, containing cyanide compounds. Pandas’ body tissues are less able than herbivores to detoxify cyanide, but their gut microbiomes are significantly enriched in putative genes coding for enzymes related to cyanide degradation, suggesting that they have cyanide-digesting gut microbes.^[51] It has been estimated that an adult panda absorbs 54.8–66.1 mg (0.846–1.020 gr) of cyanide a day through its diet. To prevent poisoning, they have evolved anti-toxic mechanisms to protect themselves. About 80% of the cyanide is metabolized to less toxic thiocyanate and discharged in urine, while the remaining 20% is detoxified by other minor pathways.^[52]

During the shoot season (April–August), pandas store a large amount of food in preparation for the months succeeding this seasonal period, in which pandas live off a diet of bamboo leaves.^[53] The giant panda is a highly specialised animal with unique adaptations, and has lived in bamboo forests for millions of years.^[54] The average giant panda eats as much as 9 to 14 kg (20 to 31 lb) of bamboo shoots a day to compensate for the limited energy content of its diet. Ingestion of such a large quantity of material is possible and necessary because of the rapid passage of large amounts of indigestible plant material through the short, straight digestive tract.^[55][56] It is also noted, however, that such rapid passage of digesta limits the potential of microbial digestion in the gastrointestinal tract,^[55] limiting alternative forms of digestion. Given this voluminous diet, the giant panda defecates up to 40 times a day.^[57] The limited energy input imposed on it by its diet has affected the panda’s behavior. The giant panda tends to limit its social interactions and avoids steeply sloping terrain to limit its energy expenditures.^[58]

Two of the panda’s most distinctive features, its large size and round face, are adaptations to its bamboo diet. Anthropologist Russell Ciochon observed: “[much] like the vegetarian gorilla, the low body surface area to body volume [of the giant panda] is indicative of a lower metabolic rate. This lower metabolic rate and a more sedentary lifestyle allows the giant panda to subsist on nutrient poor resources such as bamboo.”^[58] The giant panda’s round face is the result of powerful jaw muscles, which attach from the top of the head to the jaw.^[58] Large molars crush and grind fibrous plant material.^[59]

The morphological characteristics of extinct relatives of the giant panda suggest that while the ancient giant panda was omnivorous 7 million years ago (mya), it only became herbivorous some 2–2.4 mya with the emergence of A. microta.^[59][60] Genome sequencing of the giant panda suggests that the dietary switch could have initiated from the loss of the sole umami taste receptor, encoded by the genes TAS1R1 and TAS1R3 (also known as T1R1 and T1R3), resulting from two frameshift mutations within the T1R1 exons.^[49] Umami taste corresponds to high levels of glutamate as found in meat and may have thus altered the food choice of the giant panda.^[61] Although the pseudogenisation (conversion into a pseudogene) of the umami taste receptor in Ailuropoda coincides with the dietary switch to herbivory, it is likely a result of, and not the reason for, the dietary change.^[59][49][61] The mutation time for the T1R1 gene in the giant panda is estimated to 4.2 mya^[59] while fossil evidence indicates bamboo consumption in the giant panda species at least 7 mya,^[60] signifying that although complete herbivory occurred around 2 mya, the dietary switch was initiated prior to T1R1 loss-of-function.^[62]

Pandas eat any of 25 bamboo species in the wild, with the most common including Fargesia dracocephala^[62] and Fargesia rufa.^[63] Only a few bamboo species are widespread at the high altitudes pandas now inhabit. Bamboo leaves contain the highest protein levels; stems have less.^[64] Because of the synchronous flowering, death, and regeneration of all bamboo within a species, the giant panda must have at least two different species available in its range to avoid starvation. While primarily herbivorous, the giant panda still retains decidedly ursine teeth and will eat meat, fish, and eggs when available. In captivity, zoos typically maintain the giant panda’s bamboo diet, though some will provide specially formulated biscuits or other dietary supplements.^[65]

Pandas will travel between different habitats if they need to, so they can get the nutrients that they need and to balance their diet for reproduction.^[66]

Interspecific interactions

Although adult giant pandas have few natural predators other than humans, young cubs are vulnerable to attacks by snow leopards, yellow-throated martens,^[67] eagles, feral dogs, and the Asian black bear. Sub-adults weighing up to 50 kg (110 lb) may be vulnerable to predation by leopards.^[68]

Giant pandas are sympatric with other large mammals and bamboo feeders, such as the takin (Budorcas taxicolor). The takin and giant panda share a similar ecological niche, and they consume the same resources. When competition for food is fierce, pandas disperse to the outskirts of takin distribution. Other possible competitors include but is not limited to, the Eurasian wild pig (Sus scrofa), Chinese goral (Naemorhedus griseus) and the Asian black bear (Ursus thibetanus). Giant pandas avoid areas with a mid-to-high density of livestock, as they depress the vegetation.^[69] The Tibetan Plateau is the only known area where both giant and red pandas can be found. Although sharing near-identical ecological niches, competition between the two species has rarely been observed. Nearly 50% of their respective distribution overlaps, and successful coexistence is achieved through distinct habitat selection.^[70]

Pathogens and parasites

A captive female died from toxoplasmosis, a disease caused by an obligate intracellular parasitic protozoan known as Toxoplasma gondii that infects most warm-blooded animals, including humans.^[71] They are likely susceptible to diseases from Baylisascaris schroederi, a parasitic nematode known to infect giant panda intestines. This nematode species is known to give pandas baylisascariasi, a deadly disease that kills more wild pandas than any other cause. Additionally, the population is threatened by canine distemper virus (CDV), canine parvovirus, rotavirus, canine adenovirus, and canine coronavirus. Bacteria, such as Clostridium welchii, Proteus mirabilis, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Escherichia coli, may also be lethal.^[72]

Behavior

The giant panda is a terrestrial animal and primarily spends its life roaming and feeding in the bamboo forests of the Qinling Mountains and in the hilly province of Sichuan.^[73] Giant pandas are generally solitary.^[54] Each adult has a defined territory and a female is not tolerant of other females in her range. Social encounters occur primarily during the brief breeding season in which pandas in proximity to one another will gather.^[74] After mating, the male leaves the female alone to raise the cub.^[32] Pandas were thought to fall into the crepuscular category, those who are active twice a day, at dawn and dusk; however, pandas may belong to a category all of their own, with activity peaks in the morning, afternoon and midnight. The low nutrition quality of bamboo means pandas need to eat more frequently, and due to their lack of major predators they can be active at any time of the day.^[75] Activity is highest in June and decreases in late summer to autumn with an increase from November through the following March.^[76] Activity is also directly related to the amount of sunlight during colder days.^[76] There is a significant interaction of solar radiation, such that solar radiation has a stronger positive effect on activity levels of panda bears.^[76]

Pandas communicate through vocalisation and scent marking such as clawing trees or spraying urine.^[43] They are able to climb and take shelter in hollow trees or rock crevices, but do not establish permanent dens. For this reason, pandas do not hibernate, which is similar to other subtropical mammals, and will instead move to elevations with warmer temperatures.^[77] Pandas rely primarily on spatial memory rather than visual memory.^[78] Though the panda is often assumed to be docile, it has been known to attack humans on rare occasions.^[79][80][81] Pandas have been known to cover themselves in horse manure to protect themselves against cold temperatures.^[82]

The species communicates foremost through a blatting sound; they achieve peaceful interactions through the emission of this sound. When in oestrus, a female emits a chirp. In hostile confrontations or during fights, the giant panda emits vocalizations such as a roar or growl. On the other hand, squeals typically indicate inferiority and submission in a dispute. Other vocalizations include honks and moans.^[83]

Olfactory communication

Giant pandas heavily rely on olfactory communication to communicate with one another. Scent marks are used to spread these chemical cues and are placed on landmarks like rocks or trees.^[84] Chemical communication in giant pandas plays many roles in their social situations. Scent marks and odors are used to spread information about sexual status, whether a female is in estrus or not, age, gender, individuality, dominance over territory, and choice of settlement.^[84] Giant pandas communicate by excreting volatile compounds, or scent marks, through the anogenital gland.^[84][85] Giant pandas have unique positions in which they will scent mark. Males deposit scent marks or urine by lifting their hind leg, rubbing their backside, or standing in order to rub the anogenital gland onto a landmark. Females, however, exercise squatting or simply rubbing their genitals onto a landmark.^[84][86]

The season plays a major role in mediating chemical communication.^[87] Depending on the season, mainly whether it is breeding season or not, may influence which odors are prioritized. Chemical signals can have different functions in different seasons. During the non-breeding season, females prefer the odors of other females because reproduction is not their primary motivation. However, during breeding season, odors from the opposite sex will be more attractive.^[87][88] Because they are solitary mammals and their breeding season is so brief, female pandas secrete chemical cues in order to let males know their sexual status.^[88] The chemical cues female pandas secrete can be considered to be pheromones for sexual reproduction.^[88] Females deposit scent marks through their urine which induces an increase in androgen levels in males.^[88] Androgen is a sex hormone found in both males and females; testosterone is the major androgen produced by males. Civetone and decanoic acid are chemicals found in female urine which promote behavioral responses in males; both chemicals are considered giant panda pheromones.^[88] Male pandas also secrete chemical signals that include information about their sexual reproductivity and age, which is beneficial for a female when choosing a mate.^[84][87] For example, age can be useful for a female to determine sexual maturity and sperm quality.^[89] Pandas are also able to determine when the signal was placed, further aiding in the quest to find a potential mate.^[89] However, chemical cues are not just used for communication between males and females, pandas can determine individuality from chemical signals. This allows them to be able to differentiate between a potential partner or someone of the same sex, which could be a potential competitor.^[89]

Chemical cues, or odors, play an important role in how a panda chooses their habitat. Pandas look for odors that tell them not only the identity of another panda, but if they should avoid them or not.^[89] Pandas tend to avoid their species for most of the year, breeding season being the brief time of major interaction.^[89] Chemical signaling allows for avoidance and competition.^[86][87] Pandas whose habitats are in similar locations will collectively leave scent marks in a unique location which is termed “scent stations”.^[89] When pandas come across these scent stations, they are able to identify a specific panda and the scope of their habitat. This allows pandas to be able to pursue a potential mate or avoid a potential competitor.^[89]

Pandas can assess an individual’s dominance status, including their age and size, via odor cues and may choose to avoid a scent mark if the signaler’s competitive ability outweighs their own.^[86] A panda’s size can be conveyed through the height of the scent mark.^[86][90] Since larger animals can place higher scent marks, an elevated scent mark advertises a higher competitive ability. Age must also be taken into consideration when assessing a competitor’s fighting ability. For example, a mature panda will be larger than a younger, immature panda and possess an advantage during a fight.^[86]

Reproduction

Giant pandas reach sexual maturity between the ages of four and eight, and may be reproductive until age 20.^[91] The mating season is between March and May, when a female goes into estrus, which lasts for two or three days and only occurs once a year.^[92] When mating, the female is in a crouching, head-down position as the male mounts her from behind. Copulation time ranges from 30 seconds to five minutes, but the male may mount her repeatedly to ensure successful fertilisation. The gestation period is somewhere between 95 and 160 days – the variability is due to the fact that the fertilized egg may linger in the reproductive system for a while before implanting on the uterine wall.^[92] Giant pandas give birth to twins in about half of pregnancies.^[93] If twins are born, usually only one survives in the wild. The mother will select the stronger of the cubs, and the weaker cub will die due to starvation. The mother is thought to be unable to produce enough milk for two cubs since she does not store fat.^[94] The father has no part in helping raise the cub.^[32]

When the cub is first born, it is pink, blind, and toothless,^[32] weighing only 90 to 130 g (3.2 to 4.6 oz), or about ⁠1/800⁠ of the mother’s weight,^[11] proportionally the smallest baby of any placental mammal.^[95] It nurses from its mother’s breast six to 14 times a day for up to 30 minutes at a time. For three to four hours, the mother may leave the den to feed, which leaves the cub defenseless. One to two weeks after birth, the cub’s skin turns grey where its hair will eventually become black. Slight pink colour may appear on the cub’s fur, as a result of a chemical reaction between the fur and its mother’s saliva. A month after birth, the colour pattern of the cub’s fur is fully developed. Its fur is very soft and coarsens with age. The cub begins to crawl at 75 to 80 days;^[11] mothers play with their cubs by rolling and wrestling with them. The cubs can eat small quantities of bamboo after six months, though mother’s milk remains the primary food source for most of the first year. Giant panda cubs weigh 45 kg (99 lb) at one year and live with their mothers until they are 18 months to two years old. The interval between births in the wild is generally two years.^[96]

Initially, the primary method of breeding giant pandas in captivity was by artificial insemination, as they seemed to lose their interest in mating once they were captured.^[97] This led some scientists to trying methods such as showing them videos of giant pandas mating^[98] and giving the males sildenafil (commonly known as Viagra).^[99] In the 2000s, researchers started having success with captive breeding programs, and they have now determined giant pandas have comparable breeding to some populations of the American black bear, a thriving bear species.^[100][73]

In July 2009, Chinese scientists confirmed the birth of the first cub to be successfully conceived through artificial insemination using frozen sperm.^[101] The technique for freezing the sperm in liquid nitrogen was first developed in 1980 and the first birth was hailed as a solution to the dwindling availability of giant panda semen, which had led to inbreeding.^[102][103] Panda semen, which can be frozen for decades, could be shared between different zoos to save the species.^[101][104] As of 2009, it is expected that zoos in destinations such as San Diego in the United States and Mexico City will be able to provide their own semen to inseminate more giant pandas.^[103]

Attempts have also been made to reproduce giant pandas by interspecific pregnancy where cloned panda embryos were implanted into the uterus of an animal of another species. This has resulted in panda fetuses, but no live births.^[105]

Human interaction

Early references

Main article: Mo (Chinese zoology)

In Ancient China, people thought pandas to be rare and noble creatures – the Empress Dowager Bo was buried with a panda skull in her vault. The grandson of Emperor Taizong of Tang is said to have given Japan two pandas and a sheet of panda skin as a sign of goodwill. Unlike many other animals in Ancient China, pandas were rarely thought to have medical uses. The few known uses include the Sichuan tribal peoples’ use of panda urine to melt accidentally swallowed needles, and the use of panda pelts to control menstruation as described in the Qin dynasty encyclopedia Erya.^[106]

The creature named mo (貘) mentioned in some ancient books has been interpreted as giant panda.^[106] The dictionary Shuowen Jiezi (Eastern Han Dynasty) says that the mo, from Shu (Sichuan), is bear-like, but yellow-and-black,^[107] although the older Erya describes mo simply as a “white leopard”.^[108] The interpretation of the legendary fierce creature pixiu (貔貅) as referring to the giant panda is also common.^[109]

During the reign of the Yongle Emperor (early 15th century), his relative from Kaifeng sent him a captured zouyu (騶虞), and another zouyu was sighted in Shandong. Zouyu is a legendary “righteous” animal, which, similarly to a qilin, only appears during the rule of a benevolent and sincere monarch.^[110]

In captivity

Main articles: Giant pandas around the world, List of giant pandas, and Panda diplomacy

See also: Category:Individual giant pandas

Pandas have been kept in zoos as early as the Western Han Dynasty in China, where the writer Sima Xiangru noted that the panda was the most treasured animal in the emperor’s garden of exotic animals in the capital Chang’an (present Xi’an). Not until the 1950s were pandas again recorded to have been exhibited in China’s zoos.^[111] Chi Chi at the London Zoo became very popular. This influenced the World Wildlife Fund to use a panda as its symbol.^[112] A 2006 New York Times article outlined the economics of keeping pandas,^[113] which costs five times more than keeping the next most expensive animal, an elephant. American zoos generally pay the Chinese government $1 million a year in fees, as part of a typical ten-year contract. San Diego’s contract with China was to expire in 2008, but got a five-year extension at about half of the previous yearly cost.^[114] The last contract, with the Memphis Zoo in Memphis, Tennessee, ended in 2013.^[113]

In the 1970s, gifts of giant pandas to American and Japanese zoos formed an important part of the diplomacy of the People’s Republic of China (PRC), as it marked some of the first cultural exchanges between China and the West. This practice has been termed “panda diplomacy“.^[115] By 1984, however, pandas were no longer given as gifts. Instead, China began to offer pandas to other nations only on 10-year loans for a fee of up to US$1,000,000 per year and with the provision that any cubs born during the loan are the property of China. As a result of this change in policy, nearly all the pandas in the world are owned by China, and pandas leased to foreign zoos and all cubs are eventually returned to China.^[116][117] As of 2022, Xin Xin at the Chapultepec Zoo in Mexico City, was the last living descendant of the gifted pandas.^[118]

Since 1998, because of a WWF lawsuit, the United States Fish and Wildlife Service only allows US zoos to import a panda if the zoo can ensure China channels more than half of its loan fee into conservation efforts for giant pandas and their habitat.^[119][120] In May 2005, China offered a breeding pair to Taiwan. The issue became embroiled in cross-Strait relations – due to both the underlying symbolism and technical issues such as whether the transfer would be considered “domestic” or “international” or whether any true conservation purpose would be served by the exchange.^[121] A contest in 2006 to name the pandas was held in the mainland, resulting in the politically charged names Tuan Tuan and Yuan Yuan (from simplified Chinese: 团圆; traditional Chinese: 團圓; pinyin: tuanyuan; lit. ‘reunion’, implying reunification). China’s offer was initially rejected by Chen Shui-bian, then President of Taiwan. However, when Ma Ying-jeou assumed the presidency in 2008, the offer was accepted and the pandas arrived in December of that year.^[122]

In the 2020s, certain “celebrity pandas” have gained a cult following amongst internet users, with dedicated fan accounts existing to keep tabs on the animals. Known as “giant panda fever” or “panda-monium”, individual pandas are known to get billions of views and engagements on social media, as well as product lines specifically emulating them.^[123] At Chengdu Research Base of Giant Panda Breeding, certain of these “celebrity pandas” are known to garner hours-long lines specifically to see them.^[123][124]

Conservation

The giant panda is a vulnerable species, threatened by continued habitat loss and fragmentation,^[31][125] and by a very low birthrate, both in the wild and in captivity.^[48] Its range is confined to a small portion on the western edge of its historical range, which stretched through southern and eastern China, northern Myanmar, and northern Vietnam. The species is scattered into more than 30 subpopulations of relatively few animals. Building of roads and human settlement near panda habitat, result in population declines. Diseases from domesticated pets and livestock is another threat. By 2100, it is estimated that the distribution of giant pandas will shrink by up to 100%, mainly due to the effects of climate change.^[1] The giant panda is listed on CITES Appendix I, meaning trade of their parts is prohibited and that they require this protection to avoid extinction.^[126] They have been protected and placed in category 1, by the 1988 Wildlife Protection Act.^[127]

The giant panda has been a target of poaching by locals since ancient times and by foreigners since it was introduced to the West. Starting in the 1930s, foreigners were unable to poach giant pandas in China because of the Second Sino-Japanese War and the Chinese Civil War, but pandas remained a source of soft furs for the locals. The population boom in China after 1949 created stress on the pandas’ habitat and the subsequent famines led to the increased hunting of wildlife, including pandas. After the Chinese economic reform, demand for panda skins from Hong Kong and Japan led to illegal poaching for the black market, acts generally ignored by the local officials at the time. In 1963, the PRC government set up Wolong National Nature Reserve to save the declining panda population.^[128]

The giant panda is among the world’s most adored and protected rare animals, and is one of the few in the world whose natural inhabitant status was able to gain a UNESCO World Heritage Site designation. The Sichuan Giant Panda Sanctuaries, located in the southwest province of Sichuan and covering seven natural reserves, were inscribed onto the World Heritage List in 2006.^{[129][130][131]} A 2015 paper found that the giant panda can serve as an umbrella species as the preservation of their habitat also helps other endemic species in China, including 70% of the country’s forest birds, 70% of mammals and 31% of amphibians.^[132]

In 2012, Earthwatch Institute, a global nonprofit that teams volunteers with scientists to conduct important environmental research, launched a program called “On the Trail of Giant Panda”. This program, based in the Wolong National Nature Reserve, allows volunteers to work up close with pandas cared for in captivity, and help them adapt to life in the wild, so that they may breed, and live longer and healthier lives.^[133] Efforts to preserve the panda bear populations in China have come at the expense of other animals in the region, including snow leopards, wolves, and dholes.^[134] In order to improve living and mating conditions for the fragmented populations of pandas, nearly 70 natural reserves have been combined to form the Giant Panda National Park in 2020. With a size of 10,500 square miles, the park is roughly three times as large as Yellowstone National Park and incorporates the Wolong National Nature Reserve. Small, isolated populations run the risk of inbreeding and smaller genetic variety makes the individuals more vulnerable to various defects and genetic mutation.^[135]

Population

In 2006, scientists reported that the number of pandas living in the wild may have been underestimated at about 1,000. Previous population surveys had used conventional methods to estimate the size of the wild panda population, but using a new method that analyzes DNA from panda droppings, scientists believed the wild population were as large as 3,000.^[48] In 2006, there were 40 panda reserves in China, compared to just 13 reserves in 1998.^[136] As the species has been reclassified from “endangered” to “vulnerable” since 2016, the conservation efforts are thought to be working. Furthermore, in response to this reclassification, the State Forestry Administration of China announced that they would not accordingly lower the conservation level for panda, and would instead reinforce the conservation efforts.^[137]

In 2020, the panda population of the new national park was already above 1,800 individuals, which is roughly 80 percent of the entire panda population in China. Establishing the new protected area in the Sichuan Province also gives various other endangered or threatened species, like the Siberian tiger, the possibility to improve their living conditions by offering them a habitat.^[138] Other species who benefit from the protection of their habitat include the snow leopard, the golden snub-nosed monkey, the red panda and the complex-toothed flying squirrel.^[139]

In July 2021, Chinese conservation authorities announced that giant pandas are no longer endangered in the wild following years of conservation efforts, with a population in the wild exceeding 1,800.^[139][140] China has received international praise for its conservation of the species, which has also helped the country establish itself as a leader in endangered species conservation.

A pancake, also known as a hotcake, griddlecake, or flapjack, is a flat cake, often thin and round, prepared from a starch-based batter that may contain eggs, milk, and butter, and then cooked on a hot surface such as a griddle or frying pan. It is a type of batter bread. Archaeological evidence suggests that pancakes were probably eaten in prehistoric societies.^[1]

The pancake’s shape and structure varies worldwide. In England, pancakes are often unleavened and resemble a crêpe.^[2] In Scotland and North America, a leavening agent is used (typically baking powder) creating a thick fluffy pancake. A crêpe is a thin pancake of Breton origin cooked on one or both sides in a special pan or crepe maker to achieve a lacelike network of fine bubbles. A well-known variation originating from southeast Europe is palatschinke, a thin moist pancake fried on both sides and filled with jam, cream cheese, chocolate, or ground walnuts, but many other fillings—sweet or savoury—can also be used.

Commercially prepared pancake mixes are available in some countries. Like waffles, commercially prepared frozen pancakes are available from companies like Eggo. When buttermilk is used in place of or in addition to milk, the pancake develops a tart flavor and becomes known as a buttermilk pancake, which is common in Scotland, Ireland and the US. Buckwheat flour can be used in a pancake batter, making for a type of buckwheat pancake, a category that includes blini, kaletez, ploye, and memil-buchimgae. When potato is used as a major portion of the batter, the result is a potato pancake.

Pancakes may be served at any time of the day or year with a variety of toppings or fillings, but they have developed associations with particular times and toppings in different regions. In North America, they are typically considered a breakfast food and serve a similar function to waffles. In Britain and the Commonwealth, they are associated with Shrove Tuesday, commonly known as “Pancake Day”, when, historically, perishable ingredients had to be used up before the fasting period of Lent.

History

The Ancient Greeks made pancakes called τηγανίτης (tēganitēs), ταγηνίτης (tagēnitēs)^[3] or ταγηνίας (tagēnias),^[4] all words deriving from τάγηνον (tagēnon), “frying pan”.^[5] The earliest attested references to tagenias are in the works of the 5th-century BC poets Cratinus^[6] and Magnes.^[7] Tagenites were made with wheat flour, olive oil, honey, and curdled milk, and were served for breakfast.^[8][9][10] Another kind of pancake was σταιτίτης (staititēs), from σταίτινος (staitinos), “of flour or dough of spelt”,^[11] derived from σταῖς (stais), “flour of spelt”.^[12] Athenaeus mentions, in his Deipnosophistae, staititas topped with honey, sesame, and cheese.^[13][14][15] The Middle English word pancake appears in English in the 15th century.^[16][17]

The Ancient Romans called their fried concoctions alia dulcia, Latin for “other sweets”. These were much different from what are known as pancakes today.^[18]

Regional varieties

See also: List of pancakes

Africa

Horn of Africa

Pancakes in the Horn of Africa (Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia and Somalia) are known as injera (sometimes transliterated as enjera, budenaa (Oromo), or canjeero (Somali)). Injera is a yeast-risen flatbread with a unique, slightly spongy texture. Traditionally, it is made out of teff flour and is a national dish in Ethiopia and Eritrea. Canjeero, also known as lahooh or lahoh, is a similar kind of flatbread eaten in Somalia and Yemen.

In Eritrea and Ethiopia, injera are usually served with one or more stews known as wat or with salads (especially, for instance, during periods of Ethiopian Orthodox fasting) or with other injera (injera firfir). The right hand is used to tear small pieces from the injera to use to pick up and eat the stews or salads. The injera under these stews soaks up juices and flavours and, after the stews and salads are finished, is also consumed. Injera thus acts simultaneously as food, eating utensil, and plate. When the “tablecloth” formed by the injera is finished, the meal is over.

Lahoh is a pancake-like bread originating in Somalia, Djibouti and Yemen.^[19][20] It is often eaten along with honey, ghee and tea. During lunch, lahoh is sometimes consumed with curry, soup or stew.

Kenya

In Kenya, pancakes are eaten for breakfast as an alternative to bread. They are served plain with the sugar already added to the batter to sweeten them. Kenyan pancakes are similar to English pancakes and French crepes.

South Africa

A “pancake” in South Africa is a crêpe. In Afrikaans, it is known as a pannekoek (plural pannekoeke) and, traditionally, is prepared on gas stoves and eaten on wet and cold days. Pannekoeke are usually served with cinnamon-flavoured sugar (and, sometimes, lemon juice) that is either allowed to dissolve into and soften them or, if their crispy texture is to be retained, eaten immediately. They are a staple at Dutch Reformed Church fêtes.^[21]

Plaatkoekies (“flapjacks”, or lit. “plate cookies”) are American-style “silver dollar” pancakes.

Uganda

In Uganda, pancakes are locally made with bananas (one of the staple foods of the country) and usually served as a breakfast or as a snack option.

East Asia

China

Chinese pancakes may be either savoury or sweet, and are generally made with dough rather than batter.^[22] The dough mostly consists of water, flour, and vegetable oil.^[23] The dish can be served as a side, usually alongside duck, or as a snack, topped with scallions along with hot and sour sauce.^[23]

Japan

In Japan, okonomiyaki are made from flour, egg, cabbage and a choice of ingredients. Oyaki are pancakes often stuffed with anko, eggplant, or nozawana. Dorayaki are a sort of sandwich made from Western-style pancakes and anko. Sweet crepes are also very popular.

The Japanese have also created a soufflé-style cooked-in rings-pancake, which is taller and fluffier than the American pancakes it is inspired by,^[24] and found in Singapore,^[25] Toronto,^[26] Australia, and the United Kingdom.^[27]

Korea

In Korea, pancakes include savoury buchimgae (Korean pancakes) and jeon (egged and battered pan-fries, sometime pancakes), bindae-tteok (pan-friend mung bean cakes), as well as sweet hotteok (filled sweet pancake). These may be served during all times of the day as side dishes or just snacks. Variants of the dish use the batter of the pancake to make deep fried vegetables, meat, or fish.^[28]

South Asia

India

India has many styles of pancake. Variations range from their taste to the main ingredient used. All are made without the use of added raising agents. Pancakes prepared using a north Indian cooking style are known as cheela. Sweet cheela are made using sugar or jaggery with a wheat flour-based batter. North Indian salty pancakes are made using batter prepared from gram flour or green gram paste (moong daal) and are sometimes garnished with paneer, a cottage-style cheese.

Dosa, appam, neer dosa and uttapam are pancakes made in a south Indian cooking style. They are prepared by fermenting rice batter and split-skinned urad bean (black lentil) blended with water. Meetha pooda – sweet pancakes often eaten with pickles and chutney – are a common breakfast food item in the Punjab. Most of the pitha in Assam are types of pancakes served on occasions such as Bihu festivals. The Bengali semi-sweet pancake pati-shapta is stuffed with grated coconut or thickened milk.

In Western India, the multi-grain thalipeeth is popular. In Goa, a traditional crêpe-like pancake known as alebele or alle belle is eaten at tea-time. It is usually filled with jaggery and coconut. In Eastern India, malpuas are sometimes prepared in the form of pancakes. In some regions of Middle India, thin green Cheelas are made with ginger or garlic leaves’ paste, and rice flour batter. Other ingredients included are salt, cummin seeds, green chili, oil, curry leaves and coriander leaves.

Nepal

In Nepal, the Newar people have a savoury rice pancake called chataamari cooked with meat or eggs on top. This dish is also known as the Newari Pizza, as it is served and eaten similarly to American pizza. Besides being served with meat or eggs, it can also be served plain.^[29]

Bangladesh

Chitoi pitha is a popular Bangladeshi steamed pancake made from rice flour. It’s a traditional dish often enjoyed during festivals and special occasions. The batter is typically made with a blend of rice flour, water, and sometimes other ingredients like coconut milk or jaggery. The batter is then poured into a heated pan or mold and steamed until cooked through. Chitoi pitha is often served with sweet toppings like jaggery or molasses, or savory accompaniments like lentil curry or fish curry.

Pakistan

In Pakistani cuisine, rishiki is a pancake, slightly thicker than a crepe, which is made from whole wheat flour, water and eggs and usually served with honey. It is widely consumed in the far north and is a staple of Chitrali cuisine.

Sri Lanka

Sri Lankan Coconut Pancakes or පොල් පැණි පෑන්කේක් (pol pani pancake) are spiced sweet coconut filling wrapped in a thin crepe, which is made from flour, eggs and coconut milk, with turmeric added to give a yellow color.

Southeast Asia

Banana pancakes are a menu item in backpacker-oriented cafes in Southeast Asia. This has given rise to the term Banana Pancake Trail or Banana Pancake Circuit, given to the growing routes travelled by backpackers across Malaysia, Thailand, Cambodia and Vietnam.^[30]

Indonesia

Pancakes in Indonesia are called panekuk. The Indonesian pancake serabi is made from rice flour and coconut milk. The dish is often served with kinca, a thick, brown-colored coconut sugar syrup. Other toppings may include sugar, ground peanuts, sliced bananas, jackfruit, and other fruits, and chocolate. Other variations include cheddar cheese, corned beef, shredded chicken, and sausage.^[31]

Other types of pancakes in Indonesia are burgo, dadar gulung, kue ape, kue apem, kue cubit, kue cucur, kue leker, kue terang bulan, laklak, martabak, pannenkoek, poffertjes, roti canai, and roti jala.

Malaysia

The traditional Malay pancake in Malaysia is called Pek Nga or Lempeng Kelapa. Cooked very similarly to an American or Canadian –style pancake, albeit without a rising agent, it is a savoury pancake usually served during the breakfast hours with fish curry, coconut sticky rice, dried fish, rendang,^[32] or sambal.

Myanmar (Burma)

The traditional Burmese pancake is called bein mont, and is a traditional Burmese snack or mont. The pancake is baked in a rice flour batter immersed in jaggery, coconut shavings and garnished with sesame seeds, peanuts and poppy seeds.^[33]

Philippines

In the Philippines, traditional dessert pancakes include salukara, a rice pancake made from glutinous rice, eggs, and coconut milk. The batter is placed in a clay pot or pan lined with banana leaves or greased with oil (traditionally lard), and is baked over hot coals. Salukara is a subtype of bibingka (Philippine baked rice cakes).^[34] Panyalam, a similar rice pancake from Mindanao, is deep-fried rather than baked.^[35]

Traditional savory pancakes in the Philippines include pudpod (smoked fish flake pancakes) and okoy (a pancake made of battered shrimp, pumpkin, or sweet potatoes).

The American style of pancakes is also a common offering in fast-food establishments in the Philippines, usually as a breakfast fare, as well as in specialty restaurants like IHOP and the local restaurant brand Pancake House. The inexpensive local counterpart, called hotcakes, aside from being commonly prepared for breakfast, is also prepared as an afternoon snack, with street kiosks selling small hotcakes topped with the choice of margarine, sugar, or condensed milk and flavored syrups.

Vietnam

In Vietnamese cuisine there is a variety of dishes that are called pancakes (bánh xèo, bánh khọt, which are sometimes called Vietnamese pancakes), as well as similar dishes such as bánh căn and bánh khoái in central Vietnam.^[36]

Europe

Austria, Czech Republic, and Romania, Slovakia, and former Yugoslavia

In Austria, the Czech Republic, and Slovakia, pancakes are called palatschinke, palačinka and palacinka, respectively (plural: palatschinken, palačinky, and palacinky). Kaiserschmarrn is an Austrian pancake including raisins, almonds, apple jam or small pieces of apple, split into pieces, and sprinkled with powdered sugar. In Romania, they are called clătită (plural: clătite). In countries of former Yugoslavia, they are called palačinka (plural: palačinke). In these languages, the word derives from the Latin placenta, meaning “cake”. These pancakes are thin and filled with apricot, plum, lingonberry, apple or strawberry jam, chocolate sauce, or hazelnut spread. Eurokrem, Nutella, and Lino-Lada fillings are favourite among the younger population. A traditional version includes filling pancakes with cheese, pouring yoghurt over them, and then baking in an oven.

Eastern Europe

Main article: Blini

Eastern-Slavic cuisines have a long tradition of pancake cooking and include a variety of pancake types. In Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine, pancakes may be breakfast food, appetizers, main courses, or desserts.

Blini (Russian: блины) or mlynci (Ukrainian: млинцi) are thin pancakes, somewhat thicker than crêpes, made from wheat or buckwheat flour, butter, eggs, and milk, with yeast added to the batter. The preparation of blini/mlynci dates back to pagan traditions and feasts, which are reflected in today’s “pancake week” celebrated in the winter before the Great Lent. In pre-Christian times, blini and mlynci were symbolically considered by early Slavic peoples as a symbol of the sun, due to their round form.^[37]

Blintzes (Russian: блинчики blinchiki) are thin crêpes made without yeast. Filled blintzes are also referred to as nalysnyky (Ukrainian: налисники), nalistniki (Russian: налистники) or nalesniki (Russian: налесники).^[38] A filling such as jam, fruits, quark, or cottage cheese, potato, cooked ground meat or chicken, and even chopped mushrooms, bean sprouts, cabbage, and onions, is rolled or enveloped into a pre-fried blintz and then the blintz is lightly re-fried, sautéed, or baked.

Traditionally, Ashkenazi Jews who, prior to 1945, lived in what is today Poland, portions of the Czech Republic, Hungary, and other portions of the former Pale of Settlement also created blintzes, with the key difference of always using a kosher cheese filling with no rennet. The majority of recipes are sweet and are often served with berries or sour cream. These crepe-like dishes would often be served during Shavuot, and today the recipe still survives in places like Israel and New York. Latkes, potato pancakes with finely shredded or grated potato, can be eaten as part of the celebration of Hanukkah.

Small thick pancakes are called oladyi (Russian: оладьи) or oladky (Ukrainian: оладки). The batter may contain various additions, such as apple and raisins.

There also exists a style of pancake made out of quark called syrniki.

Denmark

Æbleskiver are traditional Danish pancakes made in a distinctive spherical shape. (The name literally means “apple slices” in Danish, although apples are not an ingredient.) Æbleskiver are cooked on the stove top by baking in a special cast iron pan with several hemispherical indentations. Batter is poured into the oiled indentations and as the æbleskiver begin to cook, they are turned with a knitting needle, skewer or fork to give the cakes their characteristic spherical shape. Æbleskiver are not sweet themselves but are traditionally served dipped in raspberry, strawberry, lingonberry or blackberry jam and sprinkled with powdered sugar.

Finland

Finnish pancakes greatly resemble plättar (see the description in the Sweden section below) and are called lettu, lätty, räiskäle or ohukainen. In Finland pancakes are usually eaten as dessert with whipped cream or pancake-jam, sugar or vanilla ice cream. Besides the plain lettu, there is also a version with stinging nettle added (nokkoslettu, pl. nokkosletut).^[40] In Finnish, lettu and pannukakku (literally “pancake”) have different meanings, the latter having a structurally closer resemblance to a hotcake, and is baked in an oven instead of using a frying pan. Ålandspannkaka, literally “pancake of Åland“, is an extra thick variety of oven-made pancake that includes the addition of cardamom and either rice pudding or semolina porridge to the dough; it is only served in Åland and usually on its Autonomy Day.^[39] Besides the sweet lettu, which is eaten as a dessert, there are savory spinach pancakes (pinaattilettu, pl. pinaattiletut), which are eaten as a main course, typically with boiled potatoes and lingonberry jam. These are available ready-made from multiple brands.^[41]

France, Belgium, Italy, Portugal, and Switzerland

Crêpes, popular in France, Belgium, Switzerland and Portugal, are made from flour, milk, and eggs. They are thin pancakes and are served with a sweet (fruit, ice cream, jam, chocolate spread, powdered sugar) or savoury filling (cheese, ham, seafood, spinach). In Francophone Europe, crêpes are often sold in special stands. In Italy there is a similar dish called crespella or scrippella. In this country are also popular some traditional waffle cookies called pizzelle and in some part of Tuscany there are typical thin crispy pancakes named brigidini, made with aniseed. In Brittany, a galette (or galette bretonne) is a large thin pancake made of buckwheat flour, often cooked on one side only.

Crêpes are popular in many South American countries such as Argentina, Brazil, and Chile. They are consumed with sweet fillings (marmalade, dulce de leche) or with salty fillings (ground meat (Brazil), vegetables, tomato sauce, cheese).

They have also become popular East Asian countries, including Japan, South Korea and China, and Southeast Asian countries, such as the Philippines and Thailand, where they are sold in crêpe stands and kiosks. They are often served with whipped cream and fruits, or non-sweet spreads such as vegetables.

Farinata are popular in Mediterranean regions, including Nice. Also called socca, these are pancakes made from chickpea flour and seasoned with black pepper. They are popular street food in Nice.

Germany

German pancakes are known as Pfannkuchen (from the German Pfanne and Kuchen meaning “pan” and “cake”) except in Berlin, Brandenburg and Saxony, where Pfannkuchen are Berliner pastries and pancakes are known as Eierkuchen. They are generally thicker than French-style crêpes and usually served with sweet or, occasionally, savoury fillings. Usage of a leavening agent or yeast is uncommon. Fried apple rings covered by pancake dough and served with sugar and cinnamon are called Apfelküchle. Kaiserschmarrn, a thick but light caramelized pancake popular in Bavaria and regions of the former Austria-Hungary, is usually split into pieces, filled with fruits or nuts, sprinkled with powdered sugar and served with a fruit sauce.

In Swabia, pancakes sliced into ribbons (Flädle) are often served in soup.

Great Britain

England

English pancakes have three key ingredients: plain flour, eggs, and milk, though Gervase Markham‘s 1615 version in The English Huswife used water instead of milk, and added sweet spices.^[42] The batter is runny and forms a thin layer on the bottom of the frying pan when the pan is tilted. It may form some bubbles during cooking, which results in a pale pancake with dark spots where the bubbles were, but the pancake does not rise. English pancakes are similar to French crêpes and Italian crespelle. They may be eaten as a sweet dessert with the traditional topping of lemon juice and sugar, drizzled with golden syrup, or wrapped around savoury stuffings and eaten as a main course. On Shrove Tuesday, it is customary to eat pancakes with one of the usual toppings. Yorkshire pudding is made from a similar recipe, but baked instead of fried. This batter rises because the air beaten into the batter expands, without the need for baking powder; the result is eaten as part of the traditional roast beef dinner. Staffordshire oatcakes are a savoury variety of pancake particularly associated with that county.

A variation of pancake is the crumpet, made from a batter leavened with yeast (or with both yeast and baking powder) and fried in butter to produce a slightly raised flat cake. They are also eaten in the rest of the United Kingdom, the Republic of Ireland, and certain areas of the Commonwealth.

Further information: crumpet

Scotland

Pancakes (also called Scotch pancakes or Scottish pancakes) are more like the American type. In parts of Scotland they are also referred to as drop scones or dropped scones.^[43][44][45] They are made from flour, eggs, sugar, buttermilk or milk, salt, bicarbonate of soda and cream of tartar.^[43][44][45] Smaller than American or English pancakes at about 9 cm (3.5 inches) in diameter, they are made by the traditional method of dropping batter onto a griddle (a girdle in Northumberland or in Scots). They can be served with jam and cream or just with butter. In Scotland pancakes are generally served at teatime.

Wales

Welsh pancakes, known as crempog, ffroes and other names, vary considerably. Generally, they are thick and layered on top of each other to form a tall mock-cake, but some are very much like American pancakes, others may be made with yeast (called crempog furum) or oatmeal (although this is also true of American pancakes) and some are like Scotch pancakes.^[46][47] Crumpets and pikelets are sometimes considered a variety of pancake.

Greece and Cyprus

Greek pancakes are called teganites (τηγανίτες and are smaller sized pancakes that can be either sweet or savoury. Their main ingredients are flour, olive oil or butter, milk and eggs. They are usually drizzled with plain sugar or honey and cinnamon and sometimes topped with cheese, nuts, fruits or vegetables. Teganites can be served for breakfast or dessert, and in some places like Corfu and Patras are customarily served in the feast days of Saint Spyridon and Saint Andrew.

In Cyprus, pancakes are also called teganites and are used in an alternative dish called Genoese cannelloni, which includes ground meat with tomato sauce, cheese and occasionally bechamel sauce.

Hungary

In Hungary, pancakes known as palacsinta (derived from the Latin placenta) are made from flour, milk or soda water, sugar, and eggs. Sweet wine may be added to the batter. The filling is usually jam, sugared and ground walnuts or poppy seeds, sugared cottage cheese, sugared cocoa, or cinnamon powder, but meat and mushroom fillings are also used (see Hortobágyi palacsinta). Gundel palacsinta is a Hungarian pancake stuffed with walnuts, zest, raisins and rum that is served in chocolate sauce and is often flambéed. Hungarian pancakes are served as a main dish or as a dessert.

Iceland

Icelandic crepe-like pancakes are called pönnukaka (pl. pönnukökur), whereas smaller, thicker and denser pancakes resembling North American pancakes are called lumma or skonsa. The pancakes are usually a bit browner than traditional Swedish ones. Pönnukökur are usually cooked on a special Icelandic pancake pan, which is made to get the pancake as thin as possible, which is traditionally never washed or rinsed, not even with water. Pönnukökur are traditionally served rolled up with sugar or folded with jam and whipped cream, but if eaten at a café they might contain ice cream instead. Pönnukökur are also a popular dessert in North America among people of Icelandic descent.

In Iceland, North American-style pancakes are cut in half and used as sandwich bread, similar to Icelandic flatbread.

Ireland

Pancakes in Irish are known as Pancóga. They are usually thick and are often prepared similarly to American style pancakes.^[48] Buttermilk pancakes are especially popular, though traditional style crêpes are also eaten. They are typically topped with either Nutella (or a similar chocolate spread), fruit, maple syrup or butter and sugar.

A boxty is an Irish potato pancake which is made with potato and flour. It is commonly eaten as part of a Full Irish Breakfast and is often eaten plain.

Netherlands

In the Netherlands, pancakes are known as pannenkoeken and are mostly eaten at lunch and dinner time. Pancake restaurants are popular with families and serve many sweet, savoury, and stuffed varieties. Pannenkoeken are slightly thicker than crêpes and usually quite large, 30 cm (12 inches) or so in diameter. The batter is egg-based and fillings include such items as sliced apples, cheese, ham, bacon, and candied ginger, alone or in combination.

Stroop, a thick molasses-like sugar beet-based syrup is also popular, particularly in a classic filling of bacon and stroop.

Poffertjes are another Dutch quick bread, similar to American pancakes but sweeter and much smaller. Made in a specially dimpled copper or cast iron pan, they are flipped once with a fork. Unlike Dutch pancakes, the batter for poffertjes contains baking powder and therefore they have a softer interior than pancakes.

A spekdik is a pancake-like food which is traditionally eaten in the provinces Groningen and Drenthe in the Netherlands around New Year. Unlike pancakes, a spekdik is cooked with a waffle iron. The main ingredients of a spekdik are syrup, eggs and rye-flour, and some varieties include bacon.

Poland

In Poland, thin crêpe-style pancakes are called naleśniki (pronounced [naˈlɛɕɲikʲi]). They are usually rolled and served with a variety of savoury or sweet fillings as a main dish or a dessert. Sweet fillings include fresh fruits (e.g. bilberries), jams (often apple jam), and soft white cheese with sugar. Savoury fillings include fried vegetables, fried chicken, minced meat, spinach, and a variety of added ingredients such as potatoes, mushrooms, cabbage or ham. Another Polish dish reassembling pancakes are racuchy. They are smaller and thicker than naleśniki and can be stuffed with apple slices.

Spain and Portugal

Iberian pancakes are called frixuelos or filloas and are very popular in Portugal and the north-west of Spain. They are made from flour, milk, and eggs. They are thin and are usually served with a large amount of sugar or honey. They are a typical Carnival sweet dessert in Portugal, Galicia, Asturias and León.

Sweden and Norway

Nordic pancakes are similar to French-style crêpes. In some Nordic countries, they are served with jam or fruit, often lingonberry or strawberry jam as a dessert with a variety of savoury fillings. Traditional Swedish variations can be exotic. Besides the usual thin pancakes, called pannkakor, which resemble the French crêpes and, often served with whipped cream and jam, are traditionally eaten for lunch on Thursdays with pea soup, the Swedish cuisine also has plättar — very small pancakes, which resemble tiny English pancakes, and are usually fried in a special pan called a “plättlagg”, a sort of frying pan with indentations to allow for several (normally seven) to be made at once. Another type of pancake is the ugnspannkaka (oven pancake), which is very thick and resembles German pancakes and is baked in the oven. There is also a variant that includes fried pork in the batter, fläskpannkaka (pork pancake).

Potato pancakes called raggmunk contain shredded raw potato, and may contain other vegetables (sometimes the pancake batter is omitted, producing rårakor). Raggmunk and rårakor are traditionally eaten with pork rinds and lingonberry jam. A special Swedish pancake is saffron pancake from Gotland, made with saffron and rice, baked in the oven. It is common to add lemon juice to the sugar for extra taste. The pancakes are often served after a soup. Another special “Swedish pancake” is the äggakaka (eggcake), also called skånsk äggakaka (Scanian eggcake), which is almost like an ordinary Swedish pancake but it is a lot thicker and also much more difficult to make due to the risk of burning it. It is made in a frying pan, is about four to five centimetres (1+¹⁄₂ to 2 inches) thick, and is served with lingonberries and bacon. The Norwegian variety is commonly eaten for dinner, traditionally with bacon, jam (typically bilberry) or sugar.

North America

Costa Rica

Costa Rican chorreadas are similar to cachapas.

Guatemala

Guatemalan pancakes are called panqueques. They are made with the same ingredients as American pancakes. The toppings are usually fruits and honey. They are a very popular breakfast meal in Guatemala. Depending on the region, the panqueque can be thin as a crêpe or as fluffy as a North American pancake.

Mexico

Mexican hotcakes are similar to American pancakes. Crêpes became popular toward the end of the 19th century after their introduction by the French sometime between the First French Intervention (1838) and the Second French Intervention in Mexico (1861–67).^[49][50] Hotcakes are often made with cornmeal, as well as, or instead of wheat flour. Hotcakes are popular breakfast items at restaurants throughout the country and are often sold by street vendors in cities and during the local celebrations of towns throughout the day. They are also sold during fairs; the vendors sell a single hotcake topped with different sauces such as condensed milk, fruit jam or a sweet goat milk spread called cajeta.

United States and Canada

American and Canadian pancakes (sometimes called hotcakes, griddlecakes, or flapjacks) are usually served at breakfast, in a stack of two or three, topped with maple syrup or table syrup, and butter. They are often served with other items such as bacon, toast, eggs or sausage. Other popular topping alternatives include jam, peanut butter, nuts, fruit, honey, powdered sugar, whipped cream, cane syrup, cinnamon and sugar, and molasses. In addition, when a pancake is occasionally served as a dessert, toppings such as ice cream, chocolate syrup, and various fruits are often used.

The thick batter contains eggs, flour, milk, and a leavening agent such as baking powder. The batter can have ingredients such as buttermilk, blueberries, strawberries, bananas, apples, chocolate chips, cheese, or sugar added. Spices such as cinnamon, vanilla and nutmeg can also be used. Yogurt may be used to give the pancakes a relatively moist consistency. Pancakes may be 1 cm (¹⁄₂ inch) thick and are typically between 10 and 25 cm (4 and 10 inches) in diameter.

Bannock is a Scottish version made from oatmeal. The bannock of native North Americans was made of corn, nut meal and plant bulb meal. Each region had its own variation of flour and fruit. Today, bannock is most often deep-fried, pan-fried and oven-baked.^[51]

Johnnycake (also jonnycake, johnny cake, journey cake or Johnny Bread) is a cornmeal flatbread that was an early American staple food, and is still eaten in the West Indies and Bermuda.^[52] The modern johnnycake is stereotypically identified with today’s Rhode Island foods, though they are a cultural staple in all of the northern US.^[53] A modern johnnycake is fried cornmeal gruel, which is made from yellow or white cornmeal mixed with salt and hot water or milk, and frequently lightly sweetened.

Yaniqueques or yanikeke are a Dominican Republic version of the johnnycake. They are a fried bread rather than a pancake, and are a popular beach food.^[54][55]

Sourdough was used by prospectors and pioneers to make pancakes without having to buy yeast. Prospectors would carry a pot of sourdough to make pancakes and bread, as it could last indefinitely, needing only flour and water to replenish it.^[56] Sourdough pancakes are now a particular speciality in Alaska.^[57] They are also found in many American pancake houses and restaurants elsewhere in America.

A silver dollar pancake refers to a pancake about 5–7 cm (2–3 inches) in diameter, or just a bit bigger than the pre-1979 silver dollar coins in the United States. This is usually made by frying a small spoonful of the same batter as any other pancake. One serving usually consists of five to ten silver dollar pancakes.

German pancakes or Dutch baby pancakes served in American pancake houses are bowl-shaped. They are eaten with lemons and powdered sugar, jam, or caramelized apples, as well as fritters.^[58] A David Eyre’s pancake is a variation on the German pancake named for the American writer and editor David W. Eyre (1912–2008).

Toutons are small, tall pancakes traditional in Newfoundland. They are usually served with dark molasses.

Oceania

Australia and New Zealand

In Australia and New Zealand, small pancakes (about 75 mm or 3 inches in diameter) known as pikelets or drop scones are also eaten. They are traditionally served with jam or jam and whipped cream, or solely with butter, at afternoon tea, but can also be served at morning tea. They are made with milk, self-raising flour, eggs, and sometimes a small amount of icing sugar.

In some circles in New Zealand, very thin, crêpe-like or English pancake-like pancakes (around 20 cm or 8 inches in diameter) are served with butter, or butter and lemon, sugar, and then rolled up and eaten.

American-style pancakes are also popular. They are eaten for breakfast or as a dessert, with lemon juice and sugar, butter and maple syrup, fruits (sometimes stewed) such as strawberries and cream, ice cream, or mascarpone.

South America

Brazil

Tapioca (Portuguese pronunciation: [tɐpiˈɔkɐ]), beiju ([bejˈʒu]) or biju ([biˈʒu]) are cassava (manioc) starch flour unleavened pancakes. They are slightly thicker than crêpes and can be eaten plain or with sweet or savoury toppings. Tapioca flour must be moistened and strained through a sieve to become a coarse flour. The heat of an ungreased hot griddle or pan makes the starchy grains fuse into a flatbread which resembles a grainy pancake. Popular tapioca toppings include molten butter and dried, shredded coconut.

Panquecas ([pɐ̃ˈkɛkɐs]) are generally made from cow’s milk and refined wheat flour, and generally eaten with savoury fillings as rolls (although dessert panquecas also exist). For those with celiac disease, corn starch might substitute for the wheat flour.^[59] Common fillings include shredded, seasoned chicken breast with tomato paste/sauce, and ground beef, seasoned with fried onion cubes or fried salted smashed garlic (refogado), and often bell pepper cubes and tomato paste/sauce. Both kinds are generally topped with Parmesan cheese. Vegan recipes also exist, with texturized soy protein (carne de soja, [ˈkaʁni dʒi ˈsɔʒɐ]) being particularly popular. Savoury panqueca is generally eaten for lunch or dinner, accompanied of white rice and salad, and less often pulses (prominently the beans Brazilian cuisine is famous for).

The exotic Brazilian pancake blinis ([bliˈnis]) is made from a mixture of coconut milk (leite de coco, [ˈlejtʃi dʒi ˈkoku]) and puba ([ˈpuβɐ]), a paste extracted from fermented cassava, most prominent in the cuisines of the Northern and Northeastern regions and relatively unknown elsewhere. The resulting product is significantly more watery, filling and strongly flavored than the unfermented tapioca, and care should be taken in rolling the pancakes if desired because it breaks very easily. Common toppings include molten butter and common sorts of savoury panqueca filling, but creative recipes might arise, such as fake lasagne.^[60]

Colombia and Venezuela

Cachapas are corn pancakes, popular in Venezuelan cuisine.

In Colombia a similar preparation to cachapas is “arepa de choclo” (sweetcorn arepa).

Argentina and Uruguay

In Argentina and Uruguay pancakes are called panqueques and are usually sweet preparations filled with dulce de leche or whipped cream and strawberries. In savory preparations, pancakes are used to make cannelloni.

Restaurant chains

In the US, Mexico and Canada, the franchised restaurant chain International House of Pancakes (IHOP) serves pancakes all day. The Original Pancake House is another chain of pancake restaurants across the US, and Walker Brothers is a series of pancake houses in the Chicago area that developed as a franchised spin-off of The Original Pancake House.

The popularity of pancakes in Australia has spawned the Pancake Parlour and Pancakes on the Rocks franchised restaurants. In British Columbia and Alberta, Canada, the restaurant chain De Dutch serves Dutch and Flemish-style pannenkoeken.

Syndrome

Pancake syndrome is an allergic reaction which some people have after eating pancakes in tropical regions where certain mites can contaminate the flour in pancakes.^[61]

Day

Main article: Shrove Tuesday

Pancakes are traditionally eaten on Shrove Tuesday, which is known as “Pancake Day” in Canada,^[62] the United Kingdom,^[63] Ireland,^[64] New Zealand, and Australia,^[65] and “Pancake Tuesday” in Ireland and Scotland. (Shrove Tuesday is better known in the United States, France, and other countries as Mardi Gras or Fat Tuesday.) Historically, pancakes were made on Shrove Tuesday so that the last of the fat or lard was used up before Lent. No meat products should be eaten during Lent.

Charity and school events are organized on Pancake Day: in a “pancake race” each participant carries a pancake in a frying pan. All runners must toss their pancakes as they run and catch them in the frying pan. This event is said to have originated in Olney, England in 1445 when a housewife was still busy frying pancakes to eat before the Lenten fast when she heard the bells of St Peter and St Paul‘s Church calling her to the Shriving Service. Eager to get to church, she ran out of her house still holding the frying pan complete with pancake, tossing it to prevent it from burning, and still wearing her apron and headscarf.^[66][67] Every Shrove Tuesday since 1950, the towns of Olney^[68] and Liberal, Kansas have competed in the International Pancake Race. Only local women may compete; they race, and their times are compared to determine the international winner. In Olney the main women’s race is augmented by races for local schoolchildren and for men.

The Rehab UK Parliamentary Pancake Race takes place every Shrove Tuesday, with teams from the British lower house (the House of Commons), the upper house (the House of Lords), and the Fourth Estate, contending for the title of Parliamentary Pancake Race Champions. The fun relay race is to raise awareness of the work of the national brain injury charity, Rehab UK, and the needs of people with acquired brain injury